Clifford Code for Quantum Authentication

The Clifford Authentication Scheme was introduced in the paper Interactive Proofs For Quantum Computations by Aharanov et al..

Outline

The Clifford code encodes a $m$-qubit message by appending an auxiliary register with Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle d} qubits in $|0\rangle$. It then applies a random Clifford operator on all $m+d$ qubits. By measuring only the auxiliary register, the authenticator decides, whether to accept the received state or whether to abort.

Notations

• ${\mathcal {S}}$: suppliant (sender)
• ${\mathcal {A}}$: authenticator (prover)
• $\rho$: $m$-qubit state to be transmitted
• $d\in \mathbb {N}$: security parameter defining the number of qubits in the auxiliary register
• $n=m+d$: total number of qubits used
• $\{C_{k}\}$: set of Clifford operations on $n$ qubits labelled by key Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle k\in {\mathcal {K}}}

Properties

• The Clifford code is quantum authentication scheme with security $2^{-d}$

Protocol Description

• Encoding: ${\mathcal {E}}_{k}:\rho \mapsto C_{k}\left(\rho \otimes |0\rangle \langle 0|^{\otimes d}\right)C_{k}^{\dagger }$

1. ${\mathcal {S}}$ appends an auxiliary register of Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle d} qubits in state $|0\rangle \langle 0|$ to the quantum message Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \rho} , which results in Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \rho\otimes|0\rangle\langle0|^{\otimes d}} .
2. Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{S}} then applies Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle C_k} for a uniformly random Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle k\in\mathcal{K}} on the total state.
3. Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{S}} sends the result to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{A}} .

• Decoding: Mathematically, the decoding process is described by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{D}_k: \rho^\prime \mapsto \mathrm{tr}_0\left( \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{acc} C_k^\dagger (\rho^\prime) C_k \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{acc}^\dagger \right) \otimes |\mathrm{ACC}\rangle\langle \mathrm{ACC}| + \mathrm{tr}\left( \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{rej} C_k^\dagger (\rho^\prime) C_k \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{rej}^\dagger \right) \Omega \otimes |\mathrm{REJ}\rangle\langle\mathrm{REJ}|} In the above, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathrm{tr}_0} is the trace over the auxiliary register only, and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathrm{tr}} is the trace over the quantum message system and the auxiliary system. Furthermore, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{acc}=\mathbb{1}^{\otimes n} \otimes |0\rangle\langle 0|^{\otimes d}} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{rej}=\mathbb{1}^{\otimes (n+d)} - \mathcal{P}_\mathrm{acc}} are projective measurement operators.

1. Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{A}} applies the inverse Clifford Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle C_k^\dagger} to the received state, which is denoted by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \rho^\prime} .
2. Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{A}} measures the auxiliary register in the computational basis.
   a. If all Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle d} auxiliary qubits are 0, the state is accepted and an additional flag qubit in state Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\mathrm{ACC}\rangle\langle\mathrm{ACC}|} is appended.
   b. Otherwise, the remaining system is traced out and replaced with a fixed Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle m} -qubit state Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Omega} and an additional flag qubit in state Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\mathrm{REJ}\rangle\langle \mathrm{REJ}|} is appended.

References

1. Aharanov et al. (2008).
2. Broadbent and Wainewright (2016).

contributed by Shraddha Singh and Isabel Nha Minh Le